Queen Tamar

Tamar (approx. 1160-1213, according to other sources – 1207 or 1210) was Georgian monarch from 1184 and a daughter of King Giorgi III.

The Georgian people, the Orthodox Church canonized Queen Tamar, recognizing her as the fourth person of the Trinity and linking her the month of life and blossoming. The feast day to the first of May 1st (14th) of May has entered the Church Calendar as the day of Remembrance of the saintly and orthodox Great Queen Tamar of the Georgians. Georgian historiography stands heavily in debt to Queen Tamar's memory.

The canonized Queen, under whom All Georgia attained a new height of power, through whose efforts the country's political and economic might was greatly expanded, who was lauded by many of her contemporaries and about whom first-rate literary works as well as numerous legends were composed has hitherto not been subjected to a fundamental study that would do justice to her period with its profound and, complex processes full of dramatism. For various reasons, Queen Tamar's great human and political image and her highly interesting time have so far not been adequately studied, and if studied, only within a narrow framework.

Fortunately, today nobody questions the great importance of personalities in history. How conspicuous is the difference between the real mental motives facilitating definite historical developments, the acts stemming from human will, and actual social actions ranking as objective socio-historical facts.

Tamar's period was actually a continuation of the great successes achieved by Georgia in her political, economic, and cultural development in the reign of David IV the Builder, in the first quarter of the 12h century. The great efforts of the Georgian Royal Court - the correct home - and foreign policy, and great victories - further expanded and strengthened Georgia, which now extended from Nikopsia to Daruband, and from Ossetia to Aragats.

Tamar's reign is noteworthy for the additional fact that her coming to the throne broke the centuries - old tradition, namely, the throne of All Georgia was occupied by a woman. Though this took place against the background of internal political-struggle, at the same time the event highlighted the refined and humane attitude to women, crowned by the great Shota Rustaveli with his clear statement: „The lions whelps are equal, be they male or female:“ (Stanza 39. M. S. Wardrop's transl.).

The period of David the Builder and Tamar is considered the "Golden Age" in Georgian history. The class (or inner-class) complications that attended the great struggle and reforms did nor overshadow the national, progressive significance of Tamar's reign.

In a charter of donation granted to Gelati in 1188, Queen Tamar appears in the following title: “In the name of God, I, Tamar Bagrationi, by the Will of God Sovereign Queen of the Abkhazians and the Kartvels, Rans, Kakhis and Armenians, Sharvanshah and Shahanshah, and

autocrat of all East and West, have desired”. Tamar traversed a definite path before she came to hold these awe-inspiring and grand titles.

Tamar was the daughter of Giorgi IU, King of All Georgia and Queen "Burdukhan, being of comely figure, fully accomplished and decorous, Tamar early attracted the attention of her contemporaries who stressed that, despite her minor age, Tamar was distinguished for a "mind not youthful but inquisitive, reasonable, wise, and exquisite" (Kartlis Tskhovreba, II, p.26). That is why, after the quelling of the rebellion of the Orbelis (in 1179), Giorgi III made Tamar his coregent, himself ' placing the gold crown on her head'. The joint reign of the father and daughter did not last long. On Tuesday of the Holy Week, 27 March 1184, Giorgi III died. Because of the 'difficult season' he was first buried in Mtskheta, and later in the same Year his body was transferred to Gelati, the traditional royal vault.

As though oblivious of the fact that Tamar had been co-regnant of Giorgi III the feudal aristocracy demanded that she should be crowned anew. Tamar had to give in. The coronation ceremony was held in a manner that stressed the rights of the aristocracy: "Those whose traditional duty it was to raise a monarch to the thrones, and seats of the forbears raised that Sun to the throne... and the crown was brought". All, the details of her crowning were performed conformably to the will of the nobles: "Since it was a rule for a representative of Likht-Imeri (Western Georgia) to place the crown on the royal head, the Archbishop of Kutaisi, Anton Saghirisdze, was invited to place, the crown". A special symbolic ceremony was held to bestow her father's sword on Tamar as the commander of the army: "and on one side-Kakhaber, eristavi of Racha and Takueri, and the felicitous and noble officials: Vardanisdze, Saghirisdze and Amanelisdze brought and bestowed the sword" (Kartlis Tskhovreba, II, p.27). Following this ceremony, "the troops of the seven kingdoms paid homage and praised "Tamar".

As soon as Tamar embarked on reigning. Independently, the feudal aristocrats forced her to dismiss persons of 'low birth and uselessness' from their posts, whom Giorgi III had promoted. Such were deemed Qubasar, the amirspasalari ("commander of the troops') and Apridon, the msa khurtuhutsesi ('major-dome') both loyal officials of the royal court. Grave was the revolt of Qutlu-Arslan, the mechurchletukhutsesi ('chief treasurer') against the royal authority, who had decided to pitch a 'tent in Isani, next to the Royal Palace. The rebels fought for legislative rights, demanding control over all major state issues; 'of bestowal and acceptance' and of pardon and punishment" (this involved the appointment of different officials and their punishment when necessary). The Queen was not to take part in the work of the Tet ('Assembly'), nor to intervene in the trial of cases; she was only to be advised of the decisions taken. The Queen was to implement the decision taken by the "Tent", i, e. she was to be allowed only executive power.

On Tamar's orders, Qutlu-Arslan was seized, to which the members ('sworn associates') of his group reacted by "coming together and seceding from Tamar", demanding the release of their leader unharmed. In this grave situation the Georgian Queen chose the road of peace she sent two honorable ladies, Khvashak Tsokali and Kravai Jaqeli, to negotiate with the rebels. Their mission was successful: Qutlu was released and the rebels appeased; the latter’s wore allegiance and promised submission". Thus, the Queen did not relinquish legislative powers.

Following the pacification of the revolt of the political group of Qutlu-Arslan, Queen Tamar took important decisions. She appointed Anton Glonistavisdze as Mtsignobartukhutsesi-C h q o n d i d e l i ('Chief of the Chancellery'), Sargis Mkhargrdzeli as Amirspasalari, Chiaberi as M a n d a t u r t u k h u t s e s i,(Chief Overseer), Kakhaber Vardanisdze as Mechurchletukhutsesi (Chief Treasurer), Vardan Dadiani as Msakhurtukhutsesi ('Majordomo'), and Marushiani as Chukhcharekhi (Royal Bodyguard). Gamrekeli -Toreli was made A m i l a k h o r i (Assistant

Amirspasalari); later he was appointed Amirspasalari to succeed Sargis Mkhargrdzeli.

Who were the eristavis of Tamar's time? Baram Vardanis-dze, Eristavi of the Svans; Kakhaber Kakhaberis-dze, Eristavi of Racha and Takueri; Otagho Sharvashis-dze, Eristavi of Tskhumi; Amanelis-dze, Eristavi of Argueti; Bediani, Eristavi of Odishi; Rati Surameli, Eristavi of Kartli; Bakur-qma, the son of Dzagan, Eristavi of Kakheti; Asat, the son of Grigol, Eristavi of Hereti; the latter forcibly deprived Saghir Kolonkelidze of his office and after a short period of possession, petitioned for the post of Arishiani, transferring the office of Eristavi of Hereti to his son Grigol". Botso Jaqeli, Eristavi of Samtskhe.

On Queen Tamar's order, other authorities, servants of the Church and the Crown, were appointed according to the rules of the Court (Kartlis Tskhovreba, II, p. 34).

The Queen of Georgia showered donations on the clergy and churches, exempting the churches from taxation and duties. Exalted with Tamar's activities, her historian states that in her reign, husbandmen turned into squires, squires into nobles, arid nobles into kings.

As soon as she came to the throne, Tamar focused her attention on spiritual life with the object of ordering Church affairs. She could see that "the evil seeds germinating in orthodoxy" hindered the moral progress of the country and the people.

Summoning Nikolaoz - Gulaberisdze from Jerusalem, "she assembled together all the elders of the Church, the monks and anchorites in the kingdom, men well versed in Holy Law".

The Queen addressed the assembled churchmen modestly:

"Holy Fathers, you have been ordained by God to be our teachers, to direct the affairs of the Holy Church and also to bring us a spiritual message. Examine everything well, confirm and establish what is right and root out corruption. Start with myself, for this crown of mine is one of kingship, not opposition to God. Do not flatter princes for their riches. or disdain beggars for their poverty. It is for you to speak, for me to act; for you to instruct, for me to practice; for you to educate, for me to administer correction; together we will keep Holy law undefiled, so that we shall not all be called to judgment: you as priests I as monarch, you as stewards and I as guardian" ("Life of the Queen of Queens, Tamar" in Kartlis Tskhovreba, II, p. 118). * This passage, as well as other quotations from the Life of the Queen of Queens, Tamar, is borrowed from Katharine Vivian's translation (manuscript, pp. 48-49, in print).

The Church assembly removed many discredited churchmen (bishops) from their offices, replacing them with "pious men" and replacing some laws of the church, which lapsed through negligence.

When Church matters had been discussed, the Assembly was joined by laymen: all the spasalaris and eristavis of the kingdom came in and addressed the Fathers on the need of making a concerted effort to choose a bridegroom for Tamar" (0 p. c i t. p. 35). Thus, Tamar's marriage was discussed jointly by the participants of the Church Assembly and representatives of the feudal aristocracy.

It was decided to marry Tamar to the Russian Prince Yuri (Giorgi), son of Andrey Bogolyubski. Despite Tamar’s reluctance, marriage was decided on. According to Tamar's historian Basil the Major-domo, "'this was ill conceived"; he is critical of the level of the emissary (Zankan Zorababeli), sent to fetch the Prince:

“For this person was unsuited to such a mission”. Though the historian has nothing against the descent or looks of the prince, he notes, “They were not acquainted with his manner of life”.

Both historians of Tamar are unanimous in recognizing that Prince Yuri proved to have abominable qualities, about which the Queen informed the D a r b a z i (Consultative body at the Royal Court). The latter decided to banish Yuri: "He was sent into exile, but provided with countless treasures and wealth". For some time, the Russian prince found asylum at Constantinople. His banishment took place two years and a half after the marriage. If the wedding was in 1185, the banishment of the former Prince-Consort must have taken place in 1187- 1188.

Following the exile of the "unlucky Russian", the powerful feudal Georgia ("The Seven Kingdoms") was thoughtful about the future of Royal Throne and sad at seeing Tamar childless. This situation and sentiment are expressed in the following lines of Rustaveli's Knight in the Panther's Skin'. "Now we want a husband for our daughter. Where shall we find him to whom we may give our throne, whom we may form in our image, make him ruler of the kingdom, guardian of the realm, that we be not destroyed, that we may not let our enemies whet their swords for us? (Quatrain 493, M. S. Wardrop's translation, p. 77, London, 1966).

The divorce and the thought of a new marriage were heavy for the Queen, who had been brought up on the sacred principles of the Gospel: “Although I have been taught according to Holy Law, Let not the wife depart from her husband”, said Tamar and continued: “yet when one spouse does not keep the marriage chamber undefiled it is not right for the other to remain with him, since he is abusing the temple of God. It is not in my power to straighten the shadow of a crooked tree, and I can without sin rid myself of the dross that you have cast upon me...”

No sooner was the Russian expelled than suitors appeared in the shape of sons of the kings of various countries, Christian or Muslim heirs apparent. However, no the Court was cautious, and many candidates were politely rejected.

Folklore has preserved many stories about the princes that wished to marry Tamar..

The country was on the upgrade. “There were victories, joy, love, leisure, and hunting in the mountains and on the plains”. Yet there still was a cause for concern: “Those saddened by (Tamar's) unlucky marriage and her childlessness were troubled and distressed”.

The emphasis of the precept from the Gospel: “You did not choose me: I chose, you” (St. John, XV, 16), found in the "Histories and Eulogies of the Sovereigns" would seem to indicate that the question of Tamar's marriage was decided by the rulers of the seven kingdoms and with the Queen's wish. David Soslani, "a man of good constitution, broad-shouldered, of handsome appearance and of medium stature, and of royal descent on the side of both parents” (K. Tsk., II, p. 46) was chosen as Tamar's bridegroom. He belonged to the Ossetian branch of the Bagrationis (This branch stemmed from Demetre, the son of the All-Georgian King Giorgi I and Queen Alde. Demetre had a son who, owing, to the bitter inner-political struggle in the country, migrated to Ossetia together with his grandmother Alde, where he married a daughter of the Ossetian king and was referred to as king of the Ossetians).

The didebulis ('grandees') of the kingdom requested Queen Rusudan (Tamar's aunt) persuade Tamar. Rusudan approved of the proposed marriage and, the people of the realm supported by the viziers and the didebulis, requested Rusudan to entreat Tamar in the following words: "Your Royal Majesty can see the manifestation of Divine Providence in your life: how many young men -sons of the sovereigns of the Greeks and the Romans, Sultans and Scythians, Persians and Ossetians, sought your hand, but they were all rightly rejected, because the Lord, had not commanded (that you should marry any of the suitors" 0 p. c i t., II, p. 46).

Tamar regarded her aunt Rusudan as her own parent, and she heeded the opinion of the nobles as well. The Queen replied thus: "God is witness that never desired marriage - neither earlier nor now - so I entreat you to free me from this necessity, for (I am anxious that) nothing should happen to the throne which has been entrusted to me, first by God, and then by my parents". (0 p. c i t., II, p. 47).

...The wedding was held at the Didube Palace, in the environs of Tbilisi"; the ceremony was such "as befitted their kingship and royal names".

Tamar’s marriage and the wedding at once claimed the attention of the masses.

The satisfied popular sentiment has been preserved in a verse:

“/Tamar/... married at Didube, where the church is;

one hundred sheep she slaughtered, and two hundred white-spotted

oxen;

To the widows and orphans she gave away a lot of gold and silver”.

The pageantry of the wedding was very interesting: " There were contests of singers and acrobats, playing of music, performances of teams of riders". The first historian of Tamar is genuine in his statement: "It is impossible to tell in what happiness and prosperity Tamar with David abided a knight like one descended from the seed of David /the Prophet/; you will gradually learn how felicitous and victorious she became".

David Soslani proved to be a worthy and valiant man. Within a year of their marriage the Prince Consort became renowned in archery and horsemanship, swimming, and jousting. He was also highly erudite, being second to none in the country in learning and in manual skills", nor did his equal appear among foreigners.

The wedding took place in 1189, and from then on David placed himself firmly in Georgia's service; he was a worthy husband to Queen Tamar, worthily and loyally performing the onerous function of Prince Consort.

Queen Tamar and David Soslani conducted the country's home and foreign policy in mutual accord. With their purposeful and wise policy, they established peaceful life in the country, solving many internal problems through conducting an adroit foreign policy.

At this time, the forces opposed to centralized royal authority (mainly West-Georgian feudal lords) established contacts with the exiled Prince Yuri, inviting him and rising in rebellion against Tamar. Notwithstanding the formidable nature of the rebellion, Tamar succeeded in quelling it and expelling the Russian without punishing him.

After the defeated Prince "took to his luckless road", peace, joy and unity prevailed in the country. The author of the "Histories and Eulogies of the Sovereigns" gives an elevated account of this state of affairs: "The lion and the ox grazed together, the leopard played with the kids, and the wolf with the sheep. Tamar's name became exalted all over the earth, David conducted military campaigns on the order and according to the instructions of Tamar who was attended by the luck of Alexander /the Great/ and triumphed with aid from above, (0 p. c i t. p. 55).

The birth of a son to Tamar, whom she named Giorgi after her father, caused nation-wide jubilation; alms were given away lavishly, prisoners of war were pardoned, and king David and Tamar's sister “gave presents and made donations”.

(Op. cit., I1, p. 57). On learning of the birth of a successor to the Georgian throne; `the Greek kings, and the sultans, atabagis and emirs of Persia sent ample presents and treasures", The Prince was nicknamed Lasha.

Queen Tamar did her best to continue the political course of her father Giorgi III and her illustrious grandfather David IV the Builder - both in home and foreign affairs. The powerful and fairly flexible military organization enabled the Royal Court to take the initiative and keep the aggressive Seljuk Turks in check; even an offensive was launched against the invaders. Georgia's active foreign policy forced the enemy to acknowledge Georgian power and to cede towns, kishlaks and pastureland from Sharvan and Ran to Basiani and Speri.

Particularly active in the 12th century were Georgian frontiersmen, this placing the Turks in extreme disadvantage. They were forced to think of uniting and organizing a coalitionary campaign. They appealed to the Caliph of Baghdad, requesting his aid in the contemplated campaign. The Caliph considered himself the actual leader of the Muslim religion; and was always ready to defend the true believers against Christians. Being sympathetic to the request he allocated a large sum of money for the organization of the campaign. Simultaneously he sent orders to Muslim countries enjoining them to prepare for war…

Queen Tamar ordered the mustering of an army. The call was answered almost by all parts of Georgia. The Georgian poet Grigol Orbliani gives a brilliant description of the composition of the All- Georgian army:

“Tamar's standard was unfurled,,

An army mustered at Didube:

The Kakhi with shield and spear, the Tushi with a sword.

The chain mail becomes the Pshavian and the Khevsuri,

The strong-armed Karlian

Like a fortress strong, The fleet-footed Ossete, and the Mtiulian

Valiant in battle. The Meskhian praised for his learning,

The courageous Imeretian for his breeding.

The Abkhazian for his archery,

The Gurian, Svan, and Megrelian

For their agility.”

Before setting out for the battle, Queen Tamar prayed for several days, and then harangued the troops thus: "Brothers of mine, be not fearful at heart because they are many and you are few, for God is with us… Put your trust in God alone, keep an upright heart before Him and have faith in Christ's Cross. Make good speed, march to their country aided by the most holy Virgin and the might of the ""invincible cross" *(The excerpt is quoted from Vivian Katharine's translation: life of the Queen of Queens, Tamar, Manuscript, p. 56.) The battle at Shamkor took place at dawn, Friday, 2 June 1195. On June 3, the citizens of Shamkor came to deliver the keys of the city to David Soslani. Thus, the Battle of Shamkor ended in a triumphant victory of the Georgians.

It was due to the active Georgian policy that such major strategic points of the Caucasus as Ganja, Dvin, Anisi, Kari (Karsi) fell into Georgian hands, Georgian troops, made a deep thrust into the south as well - into the lands of Khati, Manazkerti and Archeshi, thereby shifting the Turkish defensive line far southward.

Georgia's military and political successes caused the concern of the Western Turks. A new campaign was organized in order to halt the growth of Georgia's power. The campaign was led by the Sultanate of Rum, one of the major Turkish states of Asia Minor. The Sultan Ruknadin of Rum appears to have been especially annoyed by the actions of Ivane Akhaltsikheli, following the capture of Kari. Ivane, whom Tamar "had appointed; a marcher, bestowing on him the rank of Atabagi or Amiri of Amiris", "took from the Turks his neighboring lands and annexed them". The statement of Tamar's first historian to the effect that all sultans were filled with fear and terror of the Queen' is not fortuitous. Now, Ruknadin came to head the joint campaign of the Seljuk Turks against Georgia.

Ruknadin sent a special envoy to Tamar. On delivering an arrogant letter to the Georgian Queen, the envoy began to utter "improper words": "Should your Queen renounce her faith, the Sultan will take her as his wife; and if she does not renounce her faith, she will be the Sultan's concubine". On hearing these supercilious words, Zakaria Mkhargrdzeli rose and gave the envoy such a crashing slap in the face" that the latter fell down like dead. When he was lifted and brought to his senses, Zakaria addressed him thus:

“Were you not an envoy, your judgments ought to have been, first, to have your tongue cut out, and then to have you beheaded for your arrogant words. Now there can be no more discourse with you. Deliver this letter to Ruknadin, with these words: we are ready to meet and fight you; let God's justice be done". Then the envoy was given some clothing and a present and sent on his way with a harsh letter. Meanwhile, Tamar commanded the mustering of an army. All the able-bodied men responded to the call both in Western and in Eastern Georgia. On Royal orders, they assembled in Javakheti. The Queen went to Vardzia where she commended David Soslan and the Georgian army to God (“Histories and Eulogies of the Sovereigns”); the decisive battle was fought at Basiani in 1204, ending in a Georgian victory.

Basil the Majordomo describes the joyous welcome given by the capital Tbilisi to the triumphant Georgian army: ""Now the citizens of Tbilisi covered the city with decorations, and Tamar and David entered it radiant as the aureole of the sun, The standard of Nuknadin was carried in. The carrying of this standard symbolized the rout of the enemy. Then the noble captives were led in first the Prince of Ezinka, followed by other eminent men. Queen Tamar " welcomed them all with words of reassurance and gave them a sumptuous feast, with presents for each one according to his rank. She sent them away to fortresses in different places, with the exception of the Prince of Ezinka" *. (* Life of the Queen of Queens, Tamar (Katharine Vivian's transl. manuscript, p. 68). Thus did Tamar dispose of the captive emiris, the Emir of Ezinka being an exception. The Queen kept him prisoner in Tbilisi for some time, and then she sold that nobleman for one horseshoe. "This she did for her own glory and repute".

It is conceivable that such humiliating punishment, meted out to the Sultan of Ezinka, was prompted by the latter's great loyalty and service to Ruknadin (According to Tamar's historians Ruknadin had blackmailed the Prince of Ezinka into yielding his territory as the mustering ground for Ruknadin's army).

The victory of the Georgians in the Battle of Basiani (as well as their victory at Shamkori) was of major historical significance. The triumphant victory of Georgia in this just struggle created the halo of invincibility for the country and its army. With her wise policy and military might, Georgia ensured complete security of her southern borders Tamar now turned her attention to the Black Sea littoral. Capturing "Lazia, Trebizond, Limon, Samsun, Sinope' Kerasund** Kitiora. *** (Cotyora) Amastris, Heraclea, and every part of Paphlagonia and Pontus", Georgia constituted these lands initial Empire of Tre-bizond, with Alexius Comnenus, a kinsman of the Bagrationis, as its emperor. Throughout the existence, of the Trebizond Empire (1204-1461), two political orientations and cultural: tendencies took shape at its Imperial Court: Georgian and Byzantine, The Comneni were loyal to Georgia, her Royal Court, and to her kings. This was particularly obvious at the time of Georgian ascendancy. The situation changed somewhat following the Mongol: invasions and the weakening of Georgia (Z. Avalisvili, T. Uspenski), when the Georgian orientation acquired an unstable character.

Thus, the setting up of a great empire of Georgian orientation bordering on Georgia and largely populated with Georgian tribes was doubtless an important development. It was a triumph of Georgian policy and diplomacy, taking advantage of Georgia's might and the international situation (the Fourth Crusade and the decline of the Byzantine Empire) that took shape early in the 13th century. Along with her political successes, Georgia in the second half of 12-13th century embarked on the road of a sharp economic rise. The high level of Georgia's economic development at the time was due to the growth of the country's productive forces based on the hard labor of the producing population harnessed the feudal yoke; agriculture was thriving, as is clear demonstrated by the existence of numerous irrigation canals in Georgia at the time under discussion. The irrigation system with the areas under irrigation, created good conditions for the development of grain crops viticulture, gardening and melon-growing. The increase of crop capacity was achieved not only through lands under cultivation but through intensification of the economy as well, pointing to economic progress. Along with highly-developed farming, craftsmanship was also advanced, which in turn paved the way for the development of commerce. Home and foreign trade flourished, the advance of artisan ship and trade contributed to the growth of urban life. Cities were of major political importance in Tamar's reign.

The principal form of settlement in 12th - 13th cent. Georgia was rural. From the meagre data available to us, it may be concluded that there were numerous villages in feudal Georgia.

The economy developed intensively in Georgia's countryside; this being made possible by the level of agricultural implements.

It is noteworthy that the 11th - 12th centuries were marked by progress in the manufacture of agricultural hardware. Tools and implements were modified and perfected, which in turn made for the further advance of farming. The plough (g u t a n i was widely used in 12th century Georgia. According to 1. Javakhishvili. A ‘winged’ ploughing implement, e r k u a n i, was used in Georgia, anticipating its use in Europe by several centuries. The erkuani was then supplanted by the g u t a n I (plough). The change was due to an essential difference in the implement itself: the so-called ‘big gutani’ was an implement of a comparatively higher order of development (I. Javakhishvili). With varying modifications of design, it spread from Georgia among the peoples of the Caucasus, who adopted even the name of the implement (P. Gugushvili. The economic organization of ploughing implements. Bull. A ca d. S c i. GS S R, vol. V, N3, 1944, p. 329).

A large plough guaranteed good tillage of the soul and increases of labor productivity. Its availability was an index of the economic power. The use of the large plough contributed to the expansion and intensification of areas under crops.

In 12th cent. Georgian agriculture use was made of the spade, hoe, shovel, sickle, axe, pruning-knives, and other implements, all having an ancient tradition here. Such implements, along with essential furniture and utensils, constituted the peasant's property. Various types of transport were used in Georgia in the period under discussion. Ethnographic materials point to the variety of transport adapted to local natural conditions. Wheeless transport (sledges) were used in Georgia's mountain zone; in the lowlands a two wheeled bullock-cart was chiefly employed, and mixed-type transport in the transitional zone.

Documents of the 12th-13th centuries point to the substantial role played by the water mill in agriculture. Almost every village of the period appears to have had a water mill. Handmills, too, were widely used in household economy-In Tamar's Georgia major irrigation canals and conduits were laid in Tiriponi valley, in the vicinity of Ruis-Urbnisi, Mukhrani, Samgori, and Kakheti and in the region beyond. These constructions were built with great skill and mastery, with account of the highly complex and varied natural conditions. The large scale and high standard of construction attest to the development of hydraulic engineering.

At the time under discussion, crops sown in Georgia, included: winter wheat, rye, spelt, winter barley, spring barley, millet, pea, lentil, etc. It may be assumed that the d o l i s p u r i wheat variety existed in the same period.

Livestock farming - predominantly in the mountainous zone - was developed in Georgia from early times, including neat cattle and sheep and goats. An animal herd formed an organic part of a feudal lord's economy. Georgia boasted many superb breeds of horses, forming an item of foreign trade. Sheep breeding was advanced, involving various high-productivity breeds. Vine-growing-developed from ancient times flourished in the 12th century. 'The frequent occurrence of representations of a bunch of grapes and vine leaves in 11th-12th-century Georgian arts and architecture is not accidental. Wine was widely produced and even exported. Viticulture was highly developed in Georgia, barring the alpine zone. Wine cellars figure in the peasant's dwelling complexes studied different corners of Georgia, pointing to the existence of a special technology and rules of winemaking. Technical crops (flax, hemp, etc.) were widely sown. Flax had been cultivated from ancient times, being an important branch in the economy of feudal Georgia too. Along with honey and wax - produced in quantity by developed beekeeping-flax was an item of lively barter and foreign trade. Cotton and rice were also grown in Georgia in the period of our concern. Developed gardening and cultivation of vegetable crops held a place of honor in the economic life of the country.

Gardening developed further in the united Georgia. All strata of the population typically possessed gardens of varying size and quality. Kings and big landlords had vast and rich gardens (see Shavteli's Abdulmesiani). It is interesting to note that roses and other flowers were cultivated in gardens, which is pointed out by Shota Rustaveli too. Sericulture was intensively cultivated-in 12th-century Georgia silk was made in different regions of the country, and was even exported.

Tamar's reign was an important stage in the development of handicrafts and trade-of urban life in general, Cities of this period constituted the political as well as commercial and artisan centers of the country or region.

Tbilisi and Kutaisi were the most important centers of urban life in12th-century Georgia. Advanced cities were: Rustavi, Ateni, Gori, Zhinvani, Dmanisi, Artanuji, Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe, Maraleti, Tmogvi, Oltisi, Samshvilde, Odzkhe, Khunani, Artaani, Tukharisi, Khornabuji, Telavi, Vartsikhe, Shorapani, Petra, Batumi, Poti, Tskhumi, Bichvinta and Nikopsia. There also were urban-type settlements: Mtskheta, Ujarma, Cheremi, Manglisi, Atsquri, Lore, Nacharmagevi, Geguti, Bolnisi, Zhaleti, Gagi, Bochorma, etc. These towns took an active part in Georgia's economic life (Sh. Meskhia).

The Georgian towns and cities of Tamar's period were mainly artisan and commercial centers.

Similarly, to the economy of all feudal countries, the share of the handicraft industry in the Georgia of Tamar's period was very substantial. A pronounced revival of urban life is noticeable from the 11th century, handicraft gradually distancing itself from culture. Hand-made goods were now used by the public at large. Pottery and ceramics, blacksmithing, stonemasonry, joinery, shoemaking, golds withing, baking, dealing in fragrant oils, copying and binding of books, and other crafts appear to have been advanced in Georgia at the time. The wide distribution and development of various branches of craftsmanship are attested not only by written historical sources but by remains of the art and material culture of this period.

In 12th-century Georgia, there was division of labor among craftsmen and there existed definite guilds or associations uniting men of the same specialty, headed by chiefs. In Georgian historical monuments we come across terms denoting the chiefs of members of specific crafts, e.g. Kalatoztukhutsesi (*chief of stonemasons'), mkervaltukhutsesi ('chief of tailors'), mkhatvartukhutsesi ('chief or artists'), mzareultukhutsesi ('chief of cooks'), etc. This points to the high development of craftsmen's labor. In Georgian cities, which were both artisan and trading centers merchants were important members of society. Besides dealing in the wares produced by the craftsmen, they took part in the solution of many important problems of city life. Occasionally they were entrusted with state, affairs as well. Georgian cities participated actively in forcing trade. It is worth noting that, according to 11th-13th century documents, almost all consumer goods were available to the population.

Medieval Georgia maintained close trading links with the Arabs, Iran, Byzantium, Armenia, Egypt, China, Russia, and other countries. Georgia imported from Muslim countries various fabrics, fragrant oils, sugar, precious stones, horse harness, precious metals, etc. Imports from Byzantium comprised cloths ('Greek'), brocades, items needed in religious rituals, and so on. According to the "'Histories and Eulogies of the Sovereigns", Georgian merchants imported high-quality wool from Alexandria too (Kartlis Tskhovreba sII. p. 80). Georgia imported Chinese, fabrics and chinaware.

Export also held an important place in the commercial relations of 12th-century Georgia. Various fabrics woolen, silk, and cotton – as well as pottery were exported. - Foreign money (coins) is found abundantly in Georgia, as well as Georgian coins abroad, which is indicative of lively commercial interrelations. Note the discovery in Kutaisi of Byzantine and Trebizond coins, Seljukid silver drachmas, an Ildeghizid coin, etc. It is the case in many other towns as well. In Tamar's time, Tbilisi, Kutaisi, Rustavi, Akhaltsikhe, Dmanisi, and other cities were major commercial and economic centers. The feudalization of the country was in full swing in 11th century Georgia, the population being turned into serfs on a mass scale; This process was attended by exclusion from the feudal production of physically disabled (handicapped) persons as well as of those devoid of means of production and therefore considered useless for the feudal lord, as they could not create a surplus product for him. This declassed part of the population created the basis for the emergence of the poor stratum. As for outlaws, they seem to have been opposed to being drawn into the feudal economy; they evaded becoming bound to the soil as serfs and expressed their protest by openly challenging the ruling class. This struggle found expression in brigandage and robbery.

Thus, the social changes, suffered by 11th-12th century Georgia on the road of her further development, resulted in the impoverishment of a part of the country's population. The number of poor people appears to have been large. Being at once to be reckoned with is by no means fortuitous that from the beginning, the State gave thought to potential as well as actual poor people.

Charity was widely practiced throughout the country.

The kings used to give away charity as “where withal” for the destitute.

According to "The Life of the Queen of Queens, Tamar" the Queen ordered Anton Chqondideli to “send many valuables and money for the poor”. She made regular donations for charitable purposes. The same was David the Builders attitude to the poor.

The giving away of property earned through one's own labor was made the principle of personal charity in Georgian society of the period under review. Exemplary in this respect were David the Builder and Queen Tamar. Of the former: "who but our Father in Heaven, who rewards us openly, can reckon what he disbursed from day to day, giving with his own hands in secret? Every morning he filled a small purse with drachmas with his own trustworthy hand and brought it back empty in the evening, with a glad heart and joyful countenance, ("Life of David, King of Kings", Kartlis Tskhovreba, vol. I, p. 353; translated by Katharine Vivian, manuscript, p. 32). In connection with David the Builder's charitable activities his historian continues: "This he did not out of what was rendered to him by his fiscal officials, nor out of the treasury, but from what he had gained with his own hands. He once gave his spiritual director loaned some twenty-four thousand drachmas from this fund - to be distributed among the poor" (i b i d.). The second historian of Tamar relates that she "did not consider an act of charity" the giving away of the state revenue, for that was not the fruit of her own work and"... whenever she was alone and at leisure, she would immediately take up her distaff or her needle, and distributed personally the work of her own hands among the clergy and the poor” ("The Life of the Queen of Queens, Tamar, (Kartlis Tskhovreba, II, p. 147; K. Vivian's trans., manuscript, p. 77).

The same historian states, “She (Tamar) appointed trustworthy men to administer the care of the poor, allotting for their use one tenth of all the revenues of whole the kingdom, internal and foreign, to the last barleycorn” (i b i d.). This "one tenth of all the revenues" gives an exact idea of the institution of charity, set by the State, namely the giving away to the poor of 10 per cent of the whole revenue of the State.

Education and culture attained a high level of development in the united and economically strong feudal Georgia of Tamar's era. Secular literature flourished, painting, metal chasing, and architecture were on the upgrade. Queen Tamar paid great attention to centers of culture and enlightenment abroad, sending many donations to support foreign churches and monasteries.

Kartlis Tskhovreba ('The Life of Georgia'), which took final shape as an integral corpus in the 13th century, is a tour de force of Old Georgian historical thought. Philosophical science reached a high level of development, which was made possible by the progress of secular culture and its Weltanschauung Humanism came to hold significant place in Georgian world outlook, being reflected poetically and philosophically in Shota Rustaveli's Knight in the Panther's Skin. The strength of humanistic ideas in Georgian society of the period, particularly in literature and art, gave scholars ground to discern clear signs of the Renaissance in them.

Thanks to Tamar's active foreign policy at the end of the first decade of the 13th century, the Sultanates of Erzinka and Khlati, the Emirate of Erzurum, and many Turkish dominions in Transcaucasia and Persian Azerbaijan found themselves in vassalage to the powerful Georgian Kingdom.

In the 12th-13th centuries Georgia expanded northward too. From the beginning, Georgia had close relations with countries of the Caucasus mountains and of the Transcaucasian foothills. The kings of united Georgia established close military, political, and cultural relations with the northern neighbors. The Circasians and Ossetians, as well as the Durdzukians and Ghundzians actively participated in the creation of the great feudal world of the Caucasus. Hence, they could naturally not remain outside the world that came into being under Georgian leadership. At the end of Tamar's reign, the mountaineers of the Northern Caucasus were among the vassals of the Queen and, besides undergoing feudalization, they came under a strong Georgian cultural influence.

In Tamar's time almost the whole of Caucasus was within the Georgian Kingdom: "from the Sea of Pontus to the Sea of Gurgan, and from Speri to Darubandi, and all Imers (Western Georgians) and the Amers (Eastern Georgians) of the Caucasus to Khazaria and Scythia" Nearly all the countries of the Northern Caucasus were Georgia's vassals: Kashageti, Ovseti, Durdzuketi, Didoeti, Ghundzeti, Leketi and Darubandi. Due to its advantageous geographic position and economic condition the northern Caucasus played a definite role in the history of Transcaucasian States. Hence the significance for the Georgian State of the influence it exerted on the peoples of the Northern Caucasus.

The influence of Georgia and Georgian culture on the peoples of the Northern Caucasus is indubitable. The relationship of the Georgians and the North-Caucasian peoples has left its mark. Many a Georgian word has entered the vocabulary of those peoples: Georgian writing spread there, as attested by frequent inscriptions; the influence of Georgian style is noticeable in architecture.

The attempt to Christianize the North-Caucasian peoples forms a highly important point in the contacts of Georgia with those peoples. The struggle for the conversion of the Didos and the Durdzuks, as well as other tribes, is linked to Tamar's names. This is not questioned in today's scholarly literature: “The activity of the Christian Church in Daghestan is linked to the name of Queen Tamar, in whose reign repeated attempts were made at Christianizing the peoples of the Northern Caucasus” (History of Daghestan, Moscow, 1967, p. 214).

The Kingdom of Georgia appears to have spared no effort at converting Daghestan. The spread of Georgian writing in Daghestan is related to this process, as well as to other cultural contacts. It is no accident that many Georgian inscriptions have been discovered in Daghestan, some of which are bilingual, executed in Georgian and in Avar. Many buildings also bear the imprint of the influence of Georgian Christian architecture.

Queen Tamar died in 1213 "while at Tabakhmela... and and her body was transferred to Gelati - possession of the kings - and she was buried in an honorable vault. And she left the kingdom to her son Lasha”.

Along with many legends and traditions, four portraits of Tamar have survived (the murals of Vardzia, Betainia Qintsvisi, and Bertubani). Basil the Majordomo left us vivid description of the Queen: "her comely figure, dark eyes, pale cheeks flushed with rose, modest demeanor and proud glance, gentle visage, and the happy and innocent charm and purity of her discourse's (translated by K. Vivian, manuscript p. 47).

The Georgian people have always cherished and will eternally hold dear the memory of the great patriot Queen who had served her country tirelessly. Her image is today with the Georgian people, encouraging the Georgian national movement towards further successes. Georgia is capable of showing profound affection for her celebrated ancestor. To every patriot Tamar is "Queen of Queens, beauty of the country and the religion and worshipper of the Messiah.

R. Metreveli